Novel Brachytherapy Technology

@article{famulari_microdosimetric_2018,

title = {Microdosimetric Evaluation of Current and Alternative Brachytherapy Sources-A Geant4-DNA Simulation Study},

author = {Gabriel Famulari and Piotr Pater and Shirin A. Enger},

doi = {10.1016/j.ijrobp.2017.09.040},

issn = {1879-355X},

year  = {2018},

date = {2018-01-01},

journal = {International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics},

volume = {100},

number = {1},

pages = {270--277},

abstract = {PURPOSE: Radioisotopes such as 75Se, 169Yb, and 153Gd have photon energy spectra and half-lives that make them excellent candidates as alternatives to 192Ir for high-dose-rate brachytherapy. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of current (192Ir, 125I, 103Pd) and alternative (75Se, 169Yb, 153Gd) brachytherapy radionuclides using Monte Carlo simulations of lineal energy distributions. 

METHODS AND MATERIALS: Brachytherapy sources (microSelectron v2 [192Ir, 75Se, 169Yb, 153Gd], SelectSeed [125I], and TheraSeed [103Pd]) were placed in the center of a spherical water phantom with a radius of 40 cm using the Geant4 Monte Carlo simulation toolkit. The kinetic energy of all primary, scattered, and fluorescence photons interacting in a scoring volume were tallied at various depths from the source. Electron tracks were generated by sampling the photon interaction spectrum and tracking all the interactions down to 10 eV using the event-by-event capabilities of the Geant4-DNA models. The dose mean lineal energy (y¯D) values were obtained through random sampling of transfer points and overlaying spherical scoring volumes within the associated volume of the tracks. The scoring volume diameter was determined by fitting the y¯D ratio for 125I to its observed RBE. 

RESULTS: y¯D increased with the increasing distance from the source for 192Ir, 75Se, and 169Yb, remained constant for 153Gd and 125I, and decreased for 103Pd. The diameter at which the y¯D ratio coincided with the RBE of 1.15 to 1.20 for 125I was ∼25 to 40 nm. The RBE (reference 1 MeV photons) at high doses and dose rates for 192Ir, 75Se, 169Yb, 153Gd, 125I, and 103Pd was 1.028 to 1.034, 1.05 to 1.07, 1.12 to 1.15, 1.16 to 1.21, 1.15 to 1.20, and 1.17 to 1.22, respectively. 

CONCLUSIONS: The radiation quality of the radionuclides under investigation was greater than that of high-energy photons. The present study has provided a set of values to modify the prescription doses for brachytherapy to account for the variation in radiation quality among radionuclides.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{famulari_practical_2017,

title = {Practical aspects of 153Gd as a radioactive source for use in brachytherapy},

author = {Gabriel Famulari and Tomas Urlich and Andrea Armstrong and Shirin A. Enger},

doi = {10.1016/j.apradiso.2017.09.028},

issn = {1872-9800},

year  = {2017},

date = {2017-12-01},

journal = {Applied Radiation and Isotopes: Including Data, Instrumentation and Methods for Use in Agriculture, Industry and Medicine},

volume = {130},

pages = {131--139},

abstract = {The goal of this study was to investigate the production, purification and immobilization techniques for a 153Gd brachytherapy source. We have investigated the maximum attainable specific activity of 153Gd through the irradiation of Gd2O3 enriched to 30.6% 152Gd at McMaster Nuclear Reactor. The advantage of producing 153Gd through this production pathway is the possibility to irradiate pre-sealed pellets of 152Gd enriched Gd2O3, thereby removing the need to perform chemical separation with large quantities of radio-impurities. However, small amounts of long-lived impurities are produced from the irradiation of enriched 152Gd targets due to traces of Eu in the sample. If the amount of impurities produced is deemed unacceptable, 153Gd can be isolated as an aqueous solution, chemically separated from impurities and loaded onto a sorbent with a high affinity for Gd before encapsulation.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{famulari_microdosimetry_2017,

title = {Microdosimetry calculations for monoenergetic electrons using Geant4-DNA combined with a weighted track sampling algorithm},

author = {Gabriel Famulari and Piotr Pater and Shirin A. Enger},

doi = {10.1088/1361-6560/aa71f6},

issn = {1361-6560},

year  = {2017},

date = {2017-07-01},

journal = {Physics in Medicine and Biology},

volume = {62},

number = {13},

pages = {5495--5508},

abstract = {The aim of this study was to calculate microdosimetric distributions for low energy electrons simulated using the Monte Carlo track structure code Geant4-DNA. Tracks for monoenergetic electrons with kinetic energies ranging from 100 eV to 1 MeV were simulated in an infinite spherical water phantom using the Geant4-DNA extension included in Geant4 toolkit version 10.2 (patch 02). The microdosimetric distributions were obtained through random sampling of transfer points and overlaying scoring volumes within the associated volume of the tracks. Relative frequency distributions of energy deposition f(textgreaterE)/f(textgreater0) and dose mean lineal energy ([Formula: see text]) values were calculated in nanometer-sized spherical and cylindrical targets. The effects of scoring volume and scoring techniques were examined. The results were compared with published data generated using MOCA8B and KURBUC. Geant4-DNA produces a lower frequency of higher energy deposits than MOCA8B. The [Formula: see text] values calculated with Geant4-DNA are smaller than those calculated using MOCA8B and KURBUC. The differences are mainly due to the lower ionization and excitation cross sections of Geant4-DNA for low energy electrons. To a lesser extent, discrepancies can also be attributed to the implementation in this study of a new and fast scoring technique that differs from that used in previous studies. For the same mean chord length ([Formula: see text]), the [Formula: see text] calculated in cylindrical volumes are larger than those calculated in spherical volumes. The discrepancies due to cross sections and scoring geometries increase with decreasing scoring site dimensions. A new set of [Formula: see text] values has been presented for monoenergetic electrons using a fast track sampling algorithm and the most recent physics models implemented in Geant4-DNA. This dataset can be combined with primary electron spectra to predict the radiation quality of photon and electron beams.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{enger_layered_2012,

title = {Layered mass geometry: a novel technique to overlay seeds and applicators onto patient geometry in Geant4 brachytherapy simulations},

author = {Shirin A. Enger and Guillaume Landry and Michel D'Amours and Frank Verhaegen and Luc Beaulieu and Makoto Asai and Joseph Perl},

doi = {10.1088/0031-9155/57/19/6269},

issn = {1361-6560},

year  = {2012},

date = {2012-10-01},

journal = {Physics in Medicine and Biology},

volume = {57},

number = {19},

pages = {6269--6277},

abstract = {A problem faced by all Monte Carlo (MC) particle transport codes is how to handle overlapping geometries. The Geant4 MC toolkit allows the user to create parallel geometries within a single application. In Geant4 the standard mass-containing geometry is defined in a simulation volume called the World Volume. Separate parallel geometries can be defined in parallel worlds, that is, alternate three dimensional simulation volumes that share the same coordinate system with the World Volume for geometrical event biasing, scoring of radiation interactions, and/or the creation of hits in detailed readout structures. Until recently, only one of those worlds could contain mass so these parallel worlds provided no solution to simplify a complex geometric overlay issue in brachytherapy, namely the overlap of radiation sources and applicators with a CT based patient geometry. The standard method to handle seed and applicator overlay in MC requires removing CT voxels whose boundaries would intersect sources, placing the sources into the resulting void and then backfilling the remaining space of the void with a relevant material. The backfilling process may degrade the accuracy of patient representation, and the geometrical complexity of the technique precludes using fast and memory-efficient coding techniques that have been developed for regular voxel geometries. The patient must be represented by the less memory and CPU-efficient Geant4 voxel placement technique, G4PVPlacement, rather than the more efficient G4NestedParameterization (G4NestedParam). We introduce for the first time a Geant4 feature developed to solve this issue: Layered Mass Geometry (LMG) whereby both the standard (CT based patient geometry) and the parallel world (seeds and applicators) may now have mass. For any area where mass is present in the parallel world, the parallel mass is used. Elsewhere, the mass of the standard world is used. With LMG the user no longer needs to remove patient CT voxels that would include for example seeds. The patient representation can be a regular voxel grid, conducive to G4NestedParam, and the patient CT derived materials remain exact, avoiding the inaccuracy of the backfilling technique. Post-implant dosimetry for one patient with (125)I permanent seed implant was performed using Geant4 version 9.5.p01 using three different geometrical techniques. The first technique was the standard described above (G4PVPlacement). The second technique placed patient voxels as before, but placed seeds with LMG (G4PVPlacement+LMG). The third technique placed patient voxels through G4NestedParam and seeds through LMG (G4NestedParam+LMG). All the scenarios were calculated with 3 different image compression factors to manipulate the number of voxels. Additionally, the dosimetric impact of the backfilling technique was investigated for the case of calcifications in close proximity of sources. LMG eliminated the need for backfilling and simplified geometry description. Of the two LMG techniques, G4PVPlacement+LMG had no benefit to calculation time or memory use, actually increasing calculation time, but G4NestedParam+LMG reduced both calculation time and memory. The benefits of G4NestedParam+LMG over standard G4PVPlacement increased with increasing voxel numbers. For the case of calcifications in close proximity to sources, LMG not only increased efficiency but also yielded more accurate dose calculation than G4PVPlacement. G4NestedParam in combination with LMG present a new, efficient approach to simulate radiation sources that overlap patient geometry. Cases with brachytherapy applicators would constitute a direct extension of the method.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{enger_dose_2012,

title = {Dose to tissue medium or water cavities as surrogate for the dose to cell nuclei at brachytherapy photon energies},

author = {Shirin A. Enger and Anders Ahnesjö and Frank Verhaegen and Luc Beaulieu},

doi = {10.1088/0031-9155/57/14/4489},

issn = {1361-6560},

year  = {2012},

date = {2012-07-01},

journal = {Physics in Medicine and Biology},

volume = {57},

number = {14},

pages = {4489--4500},

abstract = {It has been suggested that modern dose calculation algorithms should be able to report absorbed dose both as dose to the local medium, D(m,m,) and as dose to a water cavity embedded in the medium, D(w,m), using conversion factors from cavity theory. Assuming that the cell nucleus with its DNA content is the most important target for biological response, the aim of this study is to investigate, by means of Monte Carlo (MC) simulations, the relationship of the dose to a cell nucleus in a medium, D(n,m,) to D(m,m) and D(w,m), for different combinations of cell nucleus compositions and tissue media for different photon energies used in brachytherapy. As D(n,m) is very impractical to calculate directly for routine treatment planning, while D(m,m) and D(w,m) are much easier to obtain, the questions arise which one of these quantities is the best surrogate for D(n,m) and which cavity theory assumptions should one use for its estimate. The Geant4.9.4 MC code was used to calculate D(m,m,) D(w,m) and D(n,m) for photon energies from 20 (representing the lower energy end of brachytherapy for ¹⁰³Pd or ¹²⁵I) to 300 keV (close to the mean energy of (¹⁹²Ir) and for the tissue media adipose, breast, prostate and muscle. To simulate the cell and its nucleus, concentric spherical cavities were placed inside a cubic phantom (10 × 10 × 10 mm³). The diameter of the simulated nuclei was set to 14 µm. For each tissue medium, three different setups were simulated; (a) D(n,m) was calculated with nuclei embedded in tissues (MC-D(n,m)). Four different published elemental compositions of cell nuclei were used. (b) D(w,m) was calculated with MC (MC-D(w,m)) and compared with large cavity theory calculated D(w,m) (LCT-D(w,m)), and small cavity theory calculated D(w,m) (SCT-D(w,m)). (c) D(m,m) was calculated with MC (MC-D(m,m)). MC-D(w,m) is a good substitute for MC-D(n,m) for all photon energies and for all simulated nucleus compositions and tissue types. SCT-D(w,m) can be used for most energies in brachytherapy, while LCT-D(w,m) should only be considered for source spectra well below 50 keV, since contributions to the absorbed dose inside the nucleus to a large degree stem from electrons released in the surrounding medium. MC-D(m,m) is not an appropriate substitute for MC-D(n,m) for the lowest photon energies for adipose and breast tissues. The ratio of MC-D(m,m) to MC-D(n,m) for adipose and breast tissue deviates from unity by 34% and 15% respectively for the lowest photon energy (20 keV), whereas the ratio is close to unity for higher energies. For prostate and muscle tissue MC-D(m,m) is a good substitute for MC-D(n,m). However, for all photon energies and tissue types the nucleus composition with the highest hydrogen content behaves differently than other compositions. Elemental compositions of the tissue and nuclei affect considerably the absorbed dose to the cell nuclei for brachytherapy sources, in particular those at the low-energy end of the spectrum. Thus, there is a need for more accurate data for the elemental compositions of tumours and healthy cells. For the nucleus compositions and tissue types investigated, MC-D(w,m) is a good substitute to MC-D(n,m) for all simulated photon energies. Whether other studied surrogates are good approximations to MC-D(n,m) depends on the target size, target composition, composition of the surrounding tissue and photon energy.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{enger_exploring_2012,

title = {Exploring (57)Co as a new isotope for brachytherapy applications},

author = {Shirin A. Enger and Hans Lundqvist and Michel D'Amours and Luc Beaulieu},

doi = {10.1118/1.3700171},

issn = {0094-2405},

year  = {2012},

date = {2012-05-01},

journal = {Medical Physics},

volume = {39},

number = {5},

pages = {2342--2345},

abstract = {PURPOSE: The characteristics of the radionuclide (57)Co make it interesting for use as a brachytherapy source. (57)Co combines a possible high specific activity with the emission of relatively low-energy photons and a half-life (272 days) suitable for regular source exchanges in an afterloader. (57)Co decays by electron capture to the stable (57)Fe with emission of 136 and 122 keV photons. 

METHODS: A hypothetical (57)Co source based on the Flexisource brachytherapy encapsulation with the active core set as a pure cobalt cylinder (length 3.5 mm and diameter 0.6 mm) covered with a cylindrical stainless-steel capsule (length 5 mm and thickness 0.125 mm) was simulated using Geant4 Monte Carlo (MC) code version 9.4. The radial dose function, g(r), and anisotropy function F(r,θ), for the line source approximation were calculated following the TG-43U1 formalism. The results were compared to well-known (192)Ir and (125)I radionuclides, representing the higher and the lower energy end of brachytherapy, respectively. 

RESULTS: The mean energy of photons in water, after passing through the core and the encapsulation material was 123 keV. This hypothetical (57)Co source has an increasing g(r) due to multiple scatter of low-energy photons, which results in a more uniform dose distribution than (192)Ir. 

CONCLUSIONS: (57)Co has many advantages compared to (192)Ir due to its low-energy gamma emissions without any electron contamination. (57)Co has an increasing g(r) that results in a more uniform dose distribution than (192)Ir due to its multiple scattered photons. The anisotropy of the (57)Co source is comparable to that of (192)Ir. Furthermore, (57)Co has lower shielding requirements than (192)Ir.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{enger_modeling_2011,

title = {Modeling a hypothetical 170Tm source for brachytherapy applications},

author = {Shirin A. Enger and Michel D'Amours and Luc Beaulieu},

doi = {10.1118/1.3626482},

issn = {0094-2405},

year  = {2011},

date = {2011-10-01},

journal = {Medical Physics},

volume = {38},

number = {10},

pages = {5307--5310},

abstract = {PURPOSE: To perform absorbed dose calculations based on Monte Carlo simulations for a hypothetical (170)Tm source and to investigate the influence of encapsulating material on the energy spectrum of the emitted electrons and photons. 

METHODS: GEANT4 Monte Carlo code version 9.2 patch 2 was used to simulate the decay process of (170)Tm and to calculate the absorbed dose distribution using the GEANT4 Penelope physics models. A hypothetical (170)Tm source based on the Flexisource brachytherapy design with the active core set as a pure thulium cylinder (length 3.5 mm and diameter 0.6 mm) and different cylindrical source encapsulations (length 5 mm and thickness 0.125 mm) constructed of titanium, stainless-steel, gold, or platinum were simulated. The radial dose function for the line source approximation was calculated following the TG-43U1 formalism for the stainless-steel encapsulation. 

RESULTS: For the titanium and stainless-steel encapsulation, 94% of the total bremsstrahlung is produced inside the core, 4.8 and 5.5% in titanium and stainless-steel capsules, respectively, and less than 1% in water. For the gold capsule, 85% is produced inside the core, 14.2% inside the gold capsule, and a negligible amount (textless1%) in water. Platinum encapsulation resulted in bremsstrahlung effects similar to those with the gold encapsulation. The range of the beta particles decreases by 1.1 mm with the stainless-steel encapsulation compared to the bare source but the tissue will still receive dose from the beta particles several millimeters from the source capsule. The gold and platinum capsules not only absorb most of the electrons but also attenuate low energy photons. The mean energy of the photons escaping the core and the stainless-steel capsule is 113 keV while for the gold and platinum the mean energy is 160 keV and 165 keV, respectively. 

CONCLUSIONS: A (170)Tm source is primarily a bremsstrahlung source, with the majority of bremsstrahlung photons being generated in the source core and experiencing little attenuation in the source encapsulation. Electrons are efficiently absorbed by the gold and platinum encapsulations. However, for the stainless-steel capsule (or other lower Z encapsulations) electrons will escape. The dose from these electrons is dominant over the photon dose in the first few millimeter but is not taken into account by current standard treatment planning systems. The total energy spectrum of photons emerging from the source depends on the encapsulation composition and results in mean photon energies well above 100 keV. This is higher than the main gamma-ray energy peak at 84 keV. Based on our results, the use of (170)Tm as a brachytherapy source presents notable challenges.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{xu_algorithm_2011,

title = {An algorithm for efficient metal artifact reductions in permanent seed},

author = {Chen Xu and Frank Verhaegen and Denis Laurendeau and Shirin A. Enger and Luc Beaulieu},

doi = {10.1118/1.3519988},

issn = {0094-2405},

year  = {2011},

date = {2011-01-01},

journal = {Medical Physics},

volume = {38},

number = {1},

pages = {47--56},

abstract = {PURPOSE: In permanent seed implants, 60 to more than 100 small metal capsules are inserted in the prostate, creating artifacts in x-ray computed tomography (CT) imaging. The goal of this work is to develop an automatic method for metal artifact reduction (MAR) from small objects such as brachytherapy seeds for clinical applications. 

METHODS: The approach for MAR is based on the interpolation of missing projections by directly using raw helical CT data (sinogram). First, an initial image is reconstructed from the raw CT data. Then, the metal objects segmented from the reconstructed image are reprojected back into the sinogram space to produce a metal-only sinogram. The Steger method is used to determine precisely the position and edges of the seed traces in the raw CT data. By combining the use of Steger detection and reprojections, the missing projections are detected and replaced by interpolation of non-missing neighboring projections. 

RESULTS: In both phantom experiments and patient studies, the missing projections have been detected successfully and the artifacts caused by metallic objects have been substantially reduced. The performance of the algorithm has been quantified by comparing the uniformity between the uncorrected and the corrected phantom images. The results of the artifact reduction algorithm are indistinguishable from the true background value. 

CONCLUSIONS: An efficient algorithm for MAR in seed brachytherapy was developed. The test results obtained using raw helical CT data for both phantom and clinical cases have demonstrated that the proposed MAR method is capable of accurately detecting and correcting artifacts caused by a large number of very small metal objects (seeds) in sinogram space. This should enable a more accurate use of advanced brachytherapy dose calculations, such as Monte Carlo simulations.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}